Judaism and the Environmental Ethic - Le-ovda Uleshomra*

glossary contents

Author:	Ilana Stein
Date:	7 September, 2006

Introduction

In the beginning God created the heaven and the Earth… And God saw everything that He had made and behold, it was very good. (Genesis 1, 1-31)

The world in which we live is indeed very beautiful, with untold complexities and diversities of species and their relationships. But as the human race has grown and become more technologically advanced, it has distanced itself from that intimate view of Creation. As Wordsworth said in his poem, The World Is Too Much with Us, "Little we see in Nature that is ours."

The growth of the human race - over six billion people - along with events such as the Industrial Revolution, has had an enormous impact on the environment, including the pollution of air, water and soil, and the wholesale destruction of rainforests. Some animal species have disappeared forever, while many others are teetering on the brink of extinction, whether indirectly as a result of habitat destruction, or directly, because of human greed for their body parts or fur.

Only in the past fifty years or so have people seen the need for environmental legislation, for laws that will save humankind from destroying its own planet. Conservation became a buzzword of the late twentieth century, meaning "the protection and wise use of the environment." In 1980, for example, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) announced its World Conservation Strategy, which included protecting the Earth's biodiversity of species, and ensuring the sustainable utilisation of all species so that the Earth's ecosystems can be preserved for future generations.

But does Judaism include this concern for Nature and her bounty? In fact, as we will learn below, the Torah teaches that humans must use the Earth's riches and yet respect and be responsible for them at the same time - sustainable utilisation exactly as defined by the IUCN. At the very beginning of Creation, both aspects are mentioned, and, through different laws, the Torah shows us how to create this balance in our daily lives.

A Jewish Philosophy - A Contradiction?

The general outlook in Judaism can be defined as the "Garden of Eden" ethic, since it is in the story of Creation that the first human was given a mandate to take care of the world around him. The entire section of the creation of a world that works in harmony within itself is capped with the creation of a human who will work the land while protecting it as well. A perfect ecosystem is described.

In reality, there are two statements made to Adam regarding the world just created. First,

And God blessed them and God said to them, "Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the Earth and subdue it; have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and over every living thing that creeps on the Earth." (Genesis 1, 28)

The second occurs in the second chapter,

And God took man and placed him in the Garden of Eden to work it and watch (protect) it. (Genesis 2, 15)

On the one hand, Adam is blessed with dominion, with subduing the Earth to do his bidding. On the other, he is told to protect the world around him. How do we reconcile the two commands? How does one protect or conserve Nature yet exploit and utilise it at the same time? Rav Joseph B. Soloveitchik discusses an appa-rent contradiction between the first two chapters of Genesis in general, in his book The Lonely Man of Faith. His argument helps answer our question.

As the Rav points out, there are in fact two accounts of the story of Creation. In the first chapter, the name of God Elokim is used, Adam is created "in God's image", and male and female are created together. He/she is charged with dominion over and subduing the Earth. In the second chapter, God's name Hashem is used in conjunction with Elokim, Adam is formed from the dust of the ground, and only later is Eve created as his helpmeet. The fourth discrepancy is that of the commands given, as mentioned above. Is this one story or two? Rav Soloveitchik answers, [1]

The answer lies… in dual man, not in an imaginary contradiction between two versions but in a real contradiction in the nature of man.

What is the difference between these two versions? The Rav, calling them "Adam the first" and “Adam the second”, goes on to describe the two aspects in detail. Adam One is creative, seeking to gain control of Nature, to subdue the Earth, in keeping with his God-given mandate. In finding out how the laws of Nature and physics operate, he is not on a spiritual quest. He only looks to "better his own position in relation to his environment." [2] The enormous technological advances over the past two hundred years in particular have allowed humans to dominate and even control their surroundings to a large extent. This is Adam One's aim - "to harness and dominate the elemental natural forces and put them at his disposal" [3] and in doing so, he fulfils the command given him on the sixth day of Creation.

Adam Two, on the other hand, is called by R' Soloveitchik the "man of faith". This person looks at the world around him, but does not see ways to exploit it. Instead, he sees the wonders of the universe and asks about the purpose behind them. He does not need to work Nature for his own comfort, but seeks to know the Creator through His creations, through His inscrutable laws. His mandate is to cultivate the garden, and protect it, and through this contemplation of Nature, to develop an intimate relationship with the Creator. The Rav describes Adam Two beautifully. [4]

He encounters the universe in all its colourfulness, splendour and grandeur, and studies it with the naiveté, awe and admiration of the child who seeks the unusual and wonderful in every ordinary thing and event. While Adam the first is dynamic and creative, transforming sensory data into thought constructs, Adam the second is receptive and beholds the world in its original dimensions. He looks for the image of God not in the mathematical formula or the natural relational law but in every beam of light, in every bud and blossom, in the morning breeze and the stillness of a starlit evening.

There is a tension, therefore, in the very basis of a person's relationship with the world around him or her. On the one hand, the human being is meant to utilise and to exploit Nature. Humans are the pinnacle of Creation, and as such, the world was created for their use, to conquer and to manipulate. On the other hand, humans are merely the custodians of the perfect world that God created. Adam and Eve were placed in the Garden of Eden to love it and to protect it.

And God took man and placed him in the Garden of Eden to work it and watch (protect) it. (Genesis 2, 15)

The word used for "placed" is vayanicheyhu, which derives from menucha (rest), a word often associated with nachala (heritage).

Rabbeinu Bechaye comments that this indicates that by God placing Adam and Eve in the Garden, they were required to care for their heritage and to work it in order to grow food for themselves. A heritage implies a gift - the wonders of Nature, with all their complexity and diversity of myriad animals and plants, were a gift to the first humans and their progeny. It is not a free gift, however, but one that requires responsible handling, so that it will remain for all generations. To be accountable for this gift means that one must guard it and protect it. How? Radak and others on this verse point out that Adam's heritage needed to be protected from mazikim, those who would do it harm. [5]

The tension within Adam, therefore, can be resolved. Humans must make use of the Earth's riches, but they must do so responsibly. And at the same time they must learn to appreciate this gift. The Torah deals with and guides us regarding both of these issues.

Use, Don't Abuse - Specific Laws in Judaism

The Torah enumerates many laws that deal with our attitude to the environment in which we live. They include prohibitions against wasting (Deuteronomy 20, 19), and causing damage to others' property (Exodus 21, 33,ff), as well as a command to allow the land to lie fallow (Exodus 23, 10-11; Leviticus 25, 1-7). There are even laws against disposing of dangerous waste materials in the public domain (B.T. Bava Kama 3), against air pollution (B.T. Bava Batra 2, 9) and against littering (Maimonides, Hilkhot Temidim U'Musafim 2, 15)! We will detail just a few examples.

A. Laws of the Land and its Plants

Most laws dealing specifically with care for the land are placed in sections dealing with settling the Land of Israel, so that even before the Jewish people reached their promised destination, concepts of how to live in harmony with Nature and yet rule it, were in place.

When you besiege a city for a long time, in order to fight it to take it, you shall not destroy the trees thereof by wielding an axe against them, because you can eat from them and therefore you shall not cut them down… Only the trees that you know are not trees for food, them you may destroy and build bulwarks against the city that makes war with you until it falls. (Deuteronomy 20, 19)

There are two issues here. The first is that fruit trees may never be destroyed, no matter what the case is. This is part of the ethic of cultivating the Garden so that there will be food for all. It is also considered to be the needless destruction of a useful plant. The second issue is that the only reason one may destroy any tree other than those that give fruit is for a great emergency like war.

Command the children of Israel to give to the Levites from their inheritance cities to dwell in, and open land around the cities shall be given to the Levites… And the open land shall be for their cattle and for their possessions and for all their animals. (Numbers 35, 2-5)

This is possibly one of the earliest mentions of environmental planning in history - a command that there be greenery around a city, similar to today's concept of creating parks to function as “green lungs” within a city.

It should be pointed out that the Talmud did not approve of trees being planted in a town (B. T. Bava Batra 24b)! But the reason given is one of notions of town planning at the time. Rashi points out it is “because a town is beautified if it has an open space in front of it.” However, this only applied to trees, for in a cramped town, sunlight was of paramount importance. In the Jerusalem Talmud it states unequivocally that "it is forbidden to live in a town in which there is no garden or greenery." (J. T. Kiddushin 4, 12; 66d)

B. Cruelty to Animals

One of the most well-known commands prohibiting the suffering of animals in the Torah is that of not eating the flesh of a living animal, (Rashi, Genesis 9, 4) leading to a concept known as tza'ar ba'alei chaim or "suffering of animals." The Torah brings other laws relating to this concept.

"Whether it be a cow or a ewe, you shall not kill it and its young both in one day." (Leviticus 22, 28) Maimonides states,

To slay the young in its mother's presence is a great cruelty. There is no distinction between the suffering of man and beast in this respect since maternal affection does not belong to the intellectual, but rather the emotional faculty that is common to both animals and man alike. The reason why the Torah speaks of a cow or ewe is because these are the domestic animals that we usually eat and in which the mother recognises her young. The same applies to the sending away of the mother bird… (Moreh Nevuchim 3, 48)

Nachmanides, in his commentary to Deutronomy 22, 6, disagrees with Maimonides in this regard. He states that these laws were not given in order to be kind to animals but rather to instil in human beings a sense of mercy. Either way, however, mercy is something that is not just a concept brought vis-à-vis humans; rather it must be extrapolated to the world at large. There must be a certain sensitivity towards other creatures, even as we dominate them.

The Rabbis legislated many laws based on this principle. For example, it is forbidden to buy any livestock unless one can provide for them (J. T. Ketubot 4, 8; 29a; Yevamot 15, 3; 14d). The Talmud relates the story of Rabbi Yehuda Hanassi who was punished for not having mercy on a calf.

They [the sufferings of R. Yehuda] came to him through a certain incident… A calf was being taken to the slaughter. When it broke away, it hid its head under Rabbi's skirts and lowed [in terror]. "Go," he said, "for this were you created." Thereupon, they said [in Heaven], "Since he has no compassion, let us bring suffering upon him."

And [his sufferings] departed likewise. How so? One day, Rabbi's maidservant was sweeping the house. [Seeing] some mice there, she wanted to sweep them away. "Let them be," he said to her, "It is written, 'and His tender mercies are over all his works.'" (Psalms 145, 9) Said they [in Heaven], "Since he is compassionate, let us be compassionate to him." (B. T. Bava Metzia 85a)

These and many other examples help humans to achieve a balance in their attitude to Nature. We may - indeed we must - make use of the riches of the Earth. But we are given guidelines that aim not only to prevent overexploitation of these riches, but also to fine-tune our attitudes towards the plants and animals that we use.

An Appreciation of Nature - Adam Two's Mandate

In keeping with the other side of Adam, the Torah shows us that we must appreciate and love Nature as well. God did not create a spectacular world just to provide food and technology. He created it to bring us beauty.

Each species - whether plant or animal - occupies its own unique niche in the world where it fulfils a specific function and provides sustenance for other species. No living creature can survive alone. Each is intricately bound up with dozens of other organisms in what we call the "web of life." Every form of life fits into this web and is connected to many others, so that if one strand breaks, the whole web can become endangered. The Tanach makes mention of and praises God for this cycle of all life. The prophets use many natural aspects in their visions, but nowhere is the love of Nature more clear than in the Psalms.

The praise of Nature par excellence is that of Psalm 104, known as Barchi Nafshi. The habitats of animals are described and how they all function in perfect order.

You make darkness and it is night, wherein all the beasts of the forest do creep forth. The young lions roar after their prey and seek their food from God. (v. 20-21)

The habitats of the stork, the wild ass, ibex, hyrax and others are mentioned and how well they fit in to the natural order. "As for the stork, the fir trees are her house. The high mountains are for the high goats; the rocks are a refuge for the hyrax." (v. 17-18)

In other prophetic works, even such detail as the migrations of birds from the harshness of winter in the Northern Hemisphere to the summer in the South, via the narrow strip of Israel, are pointed out.

The stork in the heavens knows her appointed times, and the turtle, the swallow, and the crane observe the time of their coming. (Jeremiah 8, 7)

The Talmud portrays God's concern for all His creatures - and not just humans - in the following statement. "The Holy One Blessed Be He sits and sustains all creatures, from the horns of the wild oryx to the eggs of lice." (B. T. Shabbat 107b) Psalms 104 echoes this, too. "All of them wait for you, that you may give them their food in its due season."

Each creature has been equipped superbly with all the means of survival. Just learning about the life of a single species makes it abundantly clear that every animal has all the "necessary equipment" for its survival. For example, a leopard has claws and powerful muscles to enable it to hunt, as well as incredible night vision so that it can see its prey at night, when that prey is at a disadvantage. In return, the prey - such as impala or any other antelope - has the advantages of living in a group so that there are many eyes, ears and nostrils with which to spot its enemy. Rabbi Akiva summed it up best when he said,

"How manifold are Your works, O Lord!" (Psalms 104, 24) You have creatures that live in the sea and You have creatures that live on the land. If those of the sea were to come up on land they would immediately die, and if those of the land were to go down to the sea they would immediately die. (B. T. Hullin 127a)

The Sages go into more detail in another discussion.

Why is a camel's tail short? Because it eats thorns (in which its tail is liable to get caught). Why is an ox's tail long? Because it grazes in meadows and has to beat off mosquitoes (and flies) with its tail. (B. T. Shabbat 31a)

While the sages were not zoologists, and their knowledge of ecology was limited, the point here is that they knew that each species is a miracle in and of itself, that it was created in just this way so that it could survive. By appreciating Nature, they were fulfilling the sense of wide-eyed wonder that belongs to Adam the second.

As for the phenomenal diversity in Nature, what is the reason for this? God could easily have created monocultures - just a few species on which humans could live, a few types of crops and some cows and chickens. Instead He created a world that is filled with a myriad species, millions of species of plants and animals.

The purpose of these vast numbers of creatures is discussed at length in the Talmud and Midrash. Even things that one regards as superfluous in the world, such as flies, fleas and mosquitoes, were included in the creation of this world. "God conveys His message with everything, even by means of a snake, even by means of a mosquito, even by means of a frog." (Bereishit Rabba 10) In the Gemara, some saw these "insignificant" creatures as a reminder to God who, "when humans sin, looks at them and says, ‘If I pres-erve these of which there is no need, how much more should I preserve those of which there is need'" (J. T. Berakhot 9, 3; 13c).

Whatever the reason - and there are many more - the Talmudic sage Rav concluded that "of all which the Holy One blessed be He created in this world, He created nothing without a purpose." (B. T. Shabbat 77b) And if a person truly sees all of Nature in its complexity, beauty and harmony, it can draw the same spont-aneous outburst from him or her that it did from the Psalmist in 104, "How diverse are Your works, Oh Lord!"

Conclusion

From just a few examples it can be seen that Judaism recognises the value of the environment along with the responsibility of the human being towards it. At the same time, humans are allowed to utilise the Earth and all its riches, within certain limitations.

There is a fine line between working and making use of the Earth and all its fruits, and protecting the Earth from harm. In actual fact, they are two sides of the same coin since if we use up all that the Earth has to offer there will be none left for our children and their children. The Torah told us about sustainable utilisation and the value of environmental protection a long time ago, in the Garden of Eden.

Perhaps the world's environmentalists could make use of a statement in the Midrash, in which the mandate, the permission, and the warning are all made clear:

God took Adam and showed him the Garden of Eden. "Look," He said, "how beautiful, how excellent is My world! And all I have created is for you. Do not destroy it for if you do, it will not repair itself." (Kohelet Rabba 7, 13)

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*

This article is dedicated in memory of Lauren Hozmi (née Markowitz). My thanks to Daniel Miller, Julian Blackman, and Darryl Stein for all their help.

1

Soloveitchik, J.B. The Lonely Man of Faith. Doubleday Publishing, U.S.A. 1992. pg.10.

2

Ibid. pg.14.

3

Ibid.

4

Ibid. p. 23

5

For example, "For you have not come to the rest (menucha) and to the inheritance (nachala)…" (Deuteronomy 12, 9)

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